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History Reference Center
Full-text articles to support research in history and genealogy and lesson plans to support student learning.
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During both world wars the devasting firepower of artillery accounted for a huge proportion of casualties, killing and maiming hundreds of thousands. But how did we reach this point given that in the Middle Ages it was little more than an princely novelty? Using gunpowder weapons was initially something of a black art, but over the centuries gunnery became a science, a dependable method of breaching fortifications, or overcoming an enemy on the battlefield....
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When war broke out in 1914, fearless pioneers took to the skies above France in flimsy biplanes. Aerial combat was perceived as glorious and chivalric, but the reality was very different: new Royal Flying corps subalterns in 1917 had a life expectancy of 11 days. The term 'ace' caught on, and daredevil aviators like the Red Baron and Billy Bishop became household names, just as the heroic pilots who defended the skies over England in 1940 are still...
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Throughout history, the most accurate shots in a military force have been employed as marksmen or sharpshooters. The formidable skill of American riflemen during the Revolutionary Wars was noted by the British who began to train rifle units; by the Napoleonic Wars, the Green Jackets were the elite of the British army. The development of optical sights in the 19th century meant that Civil War sharpshooters were even more lethal. Although the accuracy...
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"Today tanks are synonymous with the modern army; seemingly impregnable high-tech weapons systems. But how has the tank developed and influenced conflict since the first tank lumbered into battle in 1916? By the end of World War I, countries were beginning to choose "heavy" or "light" tank designs to suit their preferred doctrine. In World War II tanks would prove integral to fighting in almost every theater, tanks spearheaded the German blitzkrieg...
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An overview of Alexander's life-from his early military exploits to the creation of his empire and the legacy left after his premature death.
Alexander was perhaps the greatest conquering general in history. In a dozen years Alexander took the whole of Asia Minor and Egypt, destroyed the once mighty Persian Empire, and pushed his army eastwards as far as the Indus. No one in history has equaled his achievement.
Much of Alexander's success can be...
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Julius Caesar has been the inspiration to countless military commanders over the last two millennia. Born into an aristocratic family, his early military campaigns, part of his progression along the cursus honorum, included campaigning in the east, Spain and in the early Roman civil wars. His participation in the Gallic Wars is known mainly through the commentary on the wars that he wrote and published, along with his incursions into Britain. This...
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Many think of the United States Marine Corps as a second land army, and while it has been employed in that capacity, it is foremost a naval expeditionary force able to seize, secure, and defend advanced naval bases in support of major campaigns.The Corps dates back to the Revolutionary War, but while they served in the conflicts of the 19th century, they are famed for their part in the wars of the 20th century. On the Western Front in World War I...